Order of magnitude

Orders of magnitude
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An order of magnitude is the class of scale or magnitude of any amount, where each class contains values of a fixed ratio to the class preceding it. In its most common usage, the amount being scaled is 10 and the scale is the (base 10) exponent being applied to this amount. Such differences in order of magnitude can be measured on the logarithmic scale in "factors of ten" or decades (as meaning "power of ten", not the term "10 years"). The entries in the table below lead to lists of items that are of the same order of magnitude in various units of measurement. This is useful for getting an intuitive sense of the comparative scale of familiar objects.

Orders of magnitude are generally used to make very approximate comparisons. If two numbers differ by one order of magnitude, one is about ten times larger than the other. If they differ by two orders of magnitude, they differ by a factor of about 100. Two numbers of the same order of magnitude have roughly the same scale: the larger value is less than ten times the smaller value. This is the reasoning behind significant figures: the amount rounded by is usually a few orders of magnitude less than the total, and therefore insignificant.

The order of magnitude of a number is, intuitively speaking, the number of powers of 10 contained in the number. More precisely, the order of magnitude of a number can be defined in terms of the common logarithm, usually as the integer part of the logarithm, obtained by truncation. For example, the number 4,000,000 has a logarithm (in base 10) of 6.602; its order of magnitude is 6. When truncating, a number of this order of magnitude is between 10⁶ and 10⁷. In a similar example, with the phrase "He had a seven-figure income", the order of magnitude is the number of figures minus one, so it is very easily determined without a calculator to be 6. An order of magnitude is an approximate position on a logarithmic scale.

An order-of-magnitude estimate of a variable whose precise value is unknown is an estimate rounded to the nearest power of ten. For example, an order-of-magnitude estimate for a variable between about 3 billion and 30 billion (such as the human population of the Earth) is 10 billion. To round a number to its nearest order of magnitude, one rounds its logarithm to the nearest integer. Thus 4,000,000, which has a logarithm (in base 10) of 6.602, has 7 as its nearest order of magnitude, because "nearest" implies rounding rather than truncation. For a number written in scientific notation, this logarithmic rounding scale requires rounding up to the next power of ten when the multiplier is greater than the square root of ten (about 3.162). For example, the nearest order of magnitude for 1.7 × 10⁸ is 8, whereas the nearest order of magnitude for 3.7 × 10⁸ is 9. An order-of-magnitude estimate is sometimes also called a zeroth order approximation.

An order of magnitude difference between two values is a factor of 10. For example, the mass of the planet Saturn is 95 times that of Earth, so Saturn is two orders of magnitude more massive than Earth. Order of magnitude differences are called decades when measured on a logarithmic scale.

In words (long scale)	In words (short scale)	Prefix	Symbol	Decimal	Power of ten	Order of magnitude
quadrillionth	septillionth	yocto-	y	0.000000000000000000000001	10⁻²⁴	−24
trilliardth	sextillionth	zepto-	z	0.000000000000000000001	10⁻²¹	−21
trillionth	quintillionth	atto-	a	0.000000000000000001	10⁻¹⁸	−18
billiardth	quadrillionth	femto-	f	0.000000000000001	10⁻¹⁵	−15
billionth	trillionth	pico-	p	0.000000000001	10⁻¹²	−12
milliardth	billionth	nano-	n	0.000000001	10⁻⁹	−9
millionth	millionth	micro-	µ	0.000001	10⁻⁶	−6
thousandth	thousandth	milli-	m	0.001	10⁻³	−3
hundredth	hundredth	centi-	c	0.01	10⁻²	−2
tenth	tenth	deci-	d	0.1	10⁻¹	−1
one	one	-	-	1	10⁰	0
ten	ten	deca-	da	10	10¹	1
hundred	hundred	hecto-	h	100	10²	2
thousand	thousand	kilo-	k	1,000	10³	3
million	million	mega-	M	1,000,000	10⁶	6
milliard	billion	giga-	G	1,000,000,000	10⁹	9
billion	trillion	tera-	T	1,000,000,000,000	10¹²	12
billiard	quadrillion	peta-	P	1,000,000,000,000,000	10¹⁵	15
trillion	quintillion	exa-	E	1,000,000,000,000,000,000	10¹⁸	18
trilliard	sextillion	zetta-	Z	1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000	10²¹	21
quadrillion	septillion	yotta-	Y	1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000	10²⁴	24

1 Non-decimal orders of magnitude
- 1.1 Extremely large numbers
2 Further reading
3 See also
4 External links

Non-decimal orders of magnitude

Other orders of magnitude may be calculated using bases other than 10. The ancient Greeks ranked the nighttime brightness of celestial bodies by 6 levels in which each level was twice as bright as the nearest weaker level of brightness, so that the brightest level is 5 orders of magnitude brighter than the weakest, which can also be stated as a factor of 32 times brighter.

The different decimal numeral systems of the world use a larger base to better envision the size of the number, and have created names for the powers of this larger base. The table shows what number the order of magnitude aim at for base 10 and for base 1,000,000. It can be seen that the order of magnitude is included in the number name in this example, because bi- means 2 and tri- means 3 (these make sense in the long scale only), and the suffix -illion tells that the base is 1,000,000. But the number names billion, trillion themselves (here with other meaning than in the first chapter) are not names of the orders of magnitudes, they are names of "magnitudes", that is the numbers 1,000,000,000,000 etc.

order of magnitude	is log₁₀ of	is log_1000000 of	short scale	long scale
1	10	1,000,000	million	million
2	100	1,000,000,000,000	trillion	billion
3	1000	1,000,000,000,000,000,000	quintillion	trillion

SI units in the table at right are used together with SI prefixes, which were devised with mainly base 1000 magnitudes in mind. The IEC standard prefixes with base 1024 was invented for use in context of electronic technology.

The ancient apparent magnitudes for the brightness of stars uses the base $\sqrt[5]{100} \approx 2.512$ and is reversed. The modernized version has however turned into a logarithmic scale with non-integer values.

Extremely large numbers

For extremely large numbers, a generalized order of magnitude can be based on their double logarithm or super-logarithm. Rounding these downward to an integer gives categories between very "round numbers", rounding them to the nearest integer and applying the inverse function gives the "nearest" round number.

The double logarithm yields the categories:

..., 1.0023–1.023, 1.023–1.26, 1.26–10, 10–10¹⁰, 10¹⁰–10¹⁰⁰, 10¹⁰⁰–10¹⁰⁰⁰, ...

(the first two mentioned, and the extension to the left, may not be very useful, they merely demonstrate how the sequence mathematically continues to the left).

The super-logarithm yields the categories:

$0-1, 1-10, 10-10^{10}, 10^{10}-10^{10^{10}}, 10^{10^{10}}-10^{10^{10^{10}}}, \dots$ , or

negative numbers, 0–1, 1–10, 10–1e10, 1e10–10^1e10, 10^1e10–⁴10, ⁴10–⁵10, etc. (see tetration)

The "midpoints" which determine which round number is nearer are in the first case:

1.076, 2.071, 1453, 4.20e31, 1.69e316,...

and, depending on the interpolation method, in the second case

−.301, .5, 3.162, 1453, 1e1453, $(10 \uparrow)^1 10^{1453}$ , $(10 \uparrow)^2 10^{1453}$ ,... (see notation of extremely large numbers)

For extremely small numbers (in the sense of close to zero) neither method is suitable directly, but of course the generalized order of magnitude of the reciprocal can be considered.

Similar to the logarithmic scale one can have a double logarithmic scale (example provided here) and super-logarithmic scale. The intervals above all have the same length on them, with the "midpoints" actually midway. More generally, a point midway between two points corresponds to the generalised f-mean with f(x) the corresponding function log log x or slog x. In the case of log log x, this mean of two numbers (e.g. 2 and 16 giving 4) does not depend on the base of the logarithm, just like in the case of log x (geometric mean, 2 and 8 giving 4), but unlike in the case of log log log x (4 and 65536 giving 16 if the base is 2, but different otherwise).

External links

Cosmos – an Illustrated Dimensional Journey from microcosmos to macrocosmos – from Digital Nature Agency
Powers of 10, a graphic animated illustration that starts with a view of the Milky Way at 10²³ meters and ends with subatomic particles at 10^-16 meters.
Orders of Magnitude - Distance
What is Order of Magnitude?

Order of magnitude

Contents

Non-decimal orders of magnitude

Extremely large numbers

Further reading

See also

External links